There were two main objectives of the literature review: a) to identify existing evidence on behaviour change interventions in the construction context, and, b) to explore the correlations between vehicular speeds and their corresponding effects on PM concentrations.

While there has been growing attention on the impact of speed limits and other traffic regulations, more research is necessary to understand the effects of vehicular speeding on ambient air quality in and around construction and demolition (C&D) sites.

The UK Department for Enterprise’s guideline on controlling dust from construction and demolition activities (2003) recommends limiting vehicle speeds on unpaved roads to 5 mph (8 kph) to reduce dust resuspension. The guidelines highlight that slower vehicle speeds lead to lower dust generation. (Kukadia et al. 2003). The dust-mitigation guidelines set by India’s Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Haryana State Pollution Control Board (HSPCB), and the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)—while acknowledging the role of vehicular activity in dust generation—do not explicitly mandate speed control as a standalone measure. The Construction & Demolition Waste Management Rules (2016), Guidelines on Environmental Management of Construction & Demolition Waste (2017), and Guidelines on Dust Mitigation Measures in Handling Construction Material and C&D Wastes (2017) identify dust-intensive activities and potential mitigation strategies. However, there’s limited focus on pollutant-intensive activities like vehicular movement, especially speed control, as a strategy for reducing air pollution.

Existing evidence suggests that vehicle movement on unpaved roads contributes to nearly 50 per cent of PM₁₀ emissions at a construction site, while movement on paved roads contributes about 25 per cent (Giunta et al. 2019). Research indicates that vehicle speed influences particulate matter (PM) emissions. At lower speeds (<20 kph), particle numbers decrease with increasing vehicle-specific power, while moderate speeds (30–60 kph) show less sensitivity (Liu et al. 2017). Alshetty and Nagendra’s (2022) study on the impact of vehicular movement on road dust resuspension showed that maximum PM concentrations (PM₁₀ = 270.1, PM_2.5 = 71.8, PM₁ = 56.3 µg/m³ ) were found at roads near construction activity due to the movement of HDVs carrying excavated earth overnight. Due to the prevailing dry and windy weather conditions, dust and mud from vehicular activities can resuspend dust both on and outside the site. Therefore, mitigating measures must be taken to minimise fugitive dust resuspension (DPCC and Clean Air Asia, 2023).

Dust emission rates are primarily influenced by several factors, including the vehicle’s weight (USEPA 2003), the amount of silt in the ground material (Jia et al. 2013), the moisture content in the soil (Gillies et al. 2005), and the vehicle’s speed (Nicholson et al. 1989; Gillies et al. 2005 ). Wang et al. (2023 ) found that vehicle speed and water content impacted the average concentration of total dust, respirable dust (RESP), and PM_2.5.

While engineering approaches, like wheel-washing stations or using chemical suppressants, can reduce vehicle induced resuspended dust, they can be costly and time-consuming to deploy and maintain. Behavioural control, on the other hand, is a popular approach to influence behaviours (Kaluarachchi et al. 2021). Past research has overlooked worker motivations and behaviours related to dust mitigation (ibid).

Kaluarachchi et al. (2021) conducted a study in Sri Lanka, and found that raising awareness of consequences and assigning responsibility could positively influence personal norms, guiding construction workers to adopt dust-control measures. They also suggested that construction companies should initiate educational campaigns to raise awareness about environmental impacts, which could influence personal norms and promote pro-social and environmental behaviour.

A dust-pollution control study conducted in the Netherlands by Nij et al. (2003) found that younger construction workers were more likely to use pollution control measures, particularly respiratory protection, than older workers. This behaviour was attributed to workers’ understanding of the health implications associated with dust exposure.

AlSehaimi et al. (2013) argued that many issues in the construction industry could be addressed through alternative research methods, such as action research and constructive research. They noted that many published construction management studies often lack recommendations for enhancing project management practices. Discussions about change primarily focus on organisational change, with limited emphasis on individual-level behaviour change. Researchers have also highlighted that little attention has been given to the social and psychological aspects of construction management theory (Sunding and Ekholm 2015).

The sector’s fragmented project organisation, involving multiple collaborating companies, is often cited as a reason for coordination and challenges (Nawi et al. 2014).

Frequently, the psychological mechanisms driving compliance are left implicit. Research demonstrates that social norms influence compliance behaviour in various domains. For instance, appeals to social norms have been proven to increase tax compliance moderately (Alm et al. 2019). This suggests that exploring social norms, influencing accountability to improve compliance, may be fruitful. (Peat et al. 2021).

Making compliance effective requires understanding the reasons behind actors’ behaviours before criticising the status quo (Engel 2014). Existing literature categorises the factors influencing compliance into two main pillars: material considerations and normative considerations (Stein 2012. Material considerations encompass tangible elements, such as the costs associated with meeting compliance standards, and intangible aspects, like the fear of reputational damage resulting from non-compliance (Brewster 2009). Behavioural insights introduce a third ‘pillar’ to the factors influencing compliance decision-making, complementing the material and normative considerations. For instance, it has been observed that visible enforcement, combined with education and awareness, is associated with higher self-reported compliance, compared to covert operations (Van Houten et al. 2013; Dau et al. 2023). This third pillar accounts for psychological processes that impact decision-making, but do not neatly fit into the material or normative categories. One notable aspect of this behavioural pillar is the influence of individual emotions and attitudes, which shed light on the psychological factors shaping compliance decisions.

Influencing pro-environmental behaviours is an effective method to prevent dust generation. Previous research has largely overlooked the significance of changing workers’ behaviours by restructuring the choice environment at active construction sites, especially in the Indian context. Quantifying the benefits of air quality improvement in an active construction site due to behaviour change can provide valuable insights into the validity of novel techniques.

Insights from the pilot site

The behavioural intervention pilot aimed to increase compliance towards the speed limit of 10 kph by targeting the behaviours of drivers and security guards. Acknowledging the influence of system-level actors such as peers on site, contractors, and management, the solutions extend to build capacity and influence behaviours holistically at the pilot site.

The pilot site, >20,000 sq m, is located in Gurugram, Haryana. This site is divided into two sections: (i) residential area (RES) and (ii) shopping-cum-office (SCO) area. The pilot’s objective was to evaluate if behavioural interventions to reduce vehicular speed could decrease road dust resuspension from vehicles speeding at the pilot site.

Beyond literature, observing behaviours in action provides valuable insights into what people actually do rather than what they claim to do. (Sheeran 2016). Observation allows one to capture the nuances influencing the key behaviour. It may be time-consuming and logistically challenging, but it helps understand the interactions between people and processes in a realworld setting, allowing the behaviour to unfold naturally.

Sites attract different types of vehicles due to different activities—earthmovers for excavation, tankers for water sprinkling, trucks of various sizes for material transportation, motorbikes for deliveries, gardening, etc.—operating at different times and speeds. During the construction phases, a high volume of HDVs entered the site. From December 2023 to February 2024, the monthly average was 263 HDVs, increasing to 297 HDVs between April and June 2024. The lower numbers during the winter months can be attributed to restrictions on truck movement imposed during the Graded Response Action Plan periods (CAQM 2023).

The guards received a day’s notice regarding the expected vehicle traffic at the site, depending on the ongoing activities. This allowed them to prepare strategies to address dust emissions from vehicular movement, including scheduling water tankers for road surface sprinkling and the wheel washing station. However, there was little to no conversation about the impact of speeding vehicles on dust resuspension and its health and environmental effects.

In a business-as-usual scenario, HDV drivers exceeded the speed limit of 10 kph as they drove through the ~100-metre approach road, stopping at the material entry gate. As a result of speeding, visibly high levels of dust resuspension along the approach road were seen as a recurring problem by the site staff and outdoor workers. We also observed how guards communicated rules and guidelines to workers. After greeting each other inside the guards’ chamber, security guards prompted drivers to enter the details in the vehicle entry diary. Once filled, another guard stationed at the gates was instructed to allow the vehicle to enter the site. During this brief interaction, guards did not convey information regarding the site speed limit or any dust control measures to the drivers, thereby failing to raise speed control as a priority task for drivers. As a result, controlling speed remained a low priority among drivers.

High temperatures and soil conditions posed a concern during the summer months. The rapid drying of the soil led to dust resuspension due to vehicular movement and wind gusts, causing discomfort for pedestrians as well as security personnel and workers who spent most of their working hours outdoors at the construction site. This discomfort was particularly noticeable near the linear approach road. The downward-sloping ~100m road naturally encourages over speeding, increasing road dust concentrations along the stretch. The entry gate for vehicles and workers is situated along the approach road, contributing to higher pedestrian movement.

Our observations from the ground revealed that drivers alone are not responsible for overspeeding, even though they are behind the wheel. In many cases, the immediate context influences the behaviour, ultimately leading to overspeeding.

This involves looking beyond the driver alone, and considering the influence of other actors, such as contractors, guards, and peers. For example, a fine/penalty could be imposed on drivers exceeding prescribed speed limits. However, that does not guarantee that the driver will not break the speed limit in the future, or at a different site, if the problem sits within a different layer of the system (for example, speeding resulting as a result of ill-maintained vehicles with defunct speedometers—in which case contractors must be involved). Therefore, we can also consider designing an intervention targeted at different layers within the broad behavioural system. For instance, developing a customised awareness and training programme for vehicle contractors to outline dust-mitigation practices for their drivers could result in a more mindful workforce entering C&D sites.

During the day shift, 11 security guards were stationed at the nine-acre construction site to enforce internal guidelines related to vehicle movement and maintain a secure working environment. While the guards are permanent employees, the drivers are contractual. Since most of their time is spent outdoors, guards are at a higher risk of PM exposure, which can lead to health issues without practicing mitigating actions like wearing facemasks. Guards reported experiencing eye irritation, breathing difficulties, and headaches due to prolonged exposure to dust.

The identified barriers serve as a roadmap for the next phase where these insights will be leveraged to design targeted solutions. The study utilises the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) (Figure 4) process to design solutions.

The BCW is a tool that helps identify the functions an effective intervention can deliver to overcome barriers or facilitate enablers within each domain of the COM-B model. In total there are nine intervention functions: education, training, persuasion, enablement, environmental restructuring, restrictions, coercion, incentivisation and modelling. The intervention functions can be used singly or in combination to design solutions. Each intervention function is linked to a specific COM component. For instance, education or training can be used to boost capability or motivation. This study identified six intervention functions that will guide the design of a programme to increase compliance toward site speed limits:

Figure 4. Behaviour Change Wheel

• Education: This involves increasing knowledge and understanding by informing, explaining, showing, and correcting behaviours.
• Training: Imparting skills
• Persuasion: This involves using communication and messaging to influence attitudes and beliefs, encouraging individuals to adopt speed compliance behaviours.
• Enablement: This involves increasing means/reducing barriers to increase capability (beyond education and training), and opportunity (beyond environmental restructuring).
• Environmental restructuring: Modifying or shaping the physical and social environment to constrain or promote a behaviour.
• Restrictions: This involves implementing measures that constrain behaviour by setting rules.

The BCW identifies evidence-based behaviour change techniques (BCTs) that can be applied to these intervention functions (Michie et al. 2013), and serve as implementational functions. The taxonomy lists and defines 93 distinct BCTs, the ‘key ingredients’ of intervention design. For example, verbal persuasion about capability (BCT 15.1) and goal setting (BCT 1.1) can both be used to boost motivation in some contexts.

The BCTs were used in combination (see Annexure II ) to design targeted interventions for both the target groups and system-level influencers, such as contractors. The interventions designed as part of the project and focussed explicitly towards speed control are described in the following section.

Capability

• Building capacity on generating and using local air quality data for dust mitigation: In a first-of-its-kind initiative, the pilot clean construction site houses a dedicated air quality monitoring room equipped with trained personnel dedicated to air quality management at an active construction site. The monitoring regime includes nine low-cost air quality sensors and an automated weather station, which provide real-time data about the sources of pollution, enabling targeted mitigation measures. Data availability helps the site team prioritise interventions in the pollutant-intensive activity areas and measure progress. The on-site personnel are trained to identify trends in PM concentrations, and enable activity specific mitigation measures.
• Designing and delivering tailored training sessions: We conducted targeted awareness and capacity building sessions, explicitly focusing on activity wise dustmitigating behaviours. The training sessions with security staff were conducted during the peak summer months (April and May) when high dust levels due to dry weather conditions pose significant challenges.
  We trained guards to raise awareness about health and environmental impacts of PM and dust, emphasising the relationship between vehicular movement and dust resuspension, and the applicable guidelines for drivers. Training with guards involved demonstrating how to verbally persuade drivers during entry, communicating the effects of dust through visual mediums. Visual references of high dust-emission instances from the pilot site were used in presentations for greater familiarity.
• Actors at each level of decision-making have a critical role to play. Guards, drivers, site staff, and contractors received step-by-step instructions on effectively controlling dust emissions from vehicular movement. We created a handbook on reducing dust caused by vehicular activity and shared it with stakeholders. The handbook served as a reference to guide capacity-building sessions. The handbook uses easy language, providing practical, behavioural actions for drivers, contractors, and site management to minimise dust during pollution-intensive activities. It simplifies complicated guidelines into actionable tasks and clarifies the roles and responsibilities of everyone involved. The nuances around mitigation measures for specific high-dust-generating activities are often overlooked when sifting through lengthy guidelines. For example, water sprinkling is not a one-off act. To be done effectively, it requires foreseeing vehicular traffic, temperature, physical observations, and coordinating with the contractor responsible for supplying water. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on mitigation techniques for each pollutant-intensive activity, understand they ‘system’, design efficient operations, and communicate them to relevant groups at active sites.
• At pilot site, explicit prioritisation of dust control by project leadership (all the way from the board to project managers) signalled its importance to contractors and workers. CEEW signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Signature Global India Ltd. to test effective strategies to advance clean construction and generate evidence for future research. The project management team mobilised resources for dust mitigation as a priority task. During workers’ briefings in the mornings, the dedicated air quality site staff informed outdoor workers of the means to reduce personal exposure and report high dustemission incidents. The management team organised training sessions on dust mitigation during peak summer months, and prior to winters for foremen, guards, health and safety staff, and workers. Health and safety staff demonstrated the proper method of wearing face masks and other protective gear, and site engineers assisted in demonstrating the use of anti-smog guns and other tools.

Opportunity

• Encouraging micro-interaction between drivers and guards: As part of the protocol, incoming drivers must furnish details before driving inside the site premises. Both groups meet inside the guards’ chamber. Using the available social opportunity to engage in meaningful dialogue, guards verbally prompted drivers about the speed limit and applicable site guidelines. The guard’s prompt acted as a subtle reminder and raised awareness about speed control as a measure to reduce resuspended dust, to improve air quality and protect the health of outdoor workers.
  Restructuring/modifying the environment: Instead of driving through the approach road first, during the pilot, drivers were required to stop at the T point and fill in their entry details before driving through the approximately 100-metre approach road. Drivers were reminded about the expected outcomes through a brief social interaction inside the guards’ chamber.
  The wheel washing station has been relocated to the entrance gate to complement efforts to reduce PM concentrations from vehicular activity. This strategic change ensures that drivers can easily wash their wheels before entering or exiting the site, eliminating the need for a detour and promoting a more efficient process. Readable speed signage has also been installed at dust-sensitive zones.
  Visual posters depicting the relationship between speeding and dust resuspension were displayed at the security booth. The guards redirected drivers’ attention to the posters to explain the impact of speeding on dust resuspension, and on the community.

Signage with excessive text made it challenging for drivers to read instructions. The elevated seat position of most HDVs further adds to visibility issues. Speed signage was redesigned to convey the necessary instructions, and ensure all stakeholders understood the messages. Signage was also designed in Hindi, as most on-site workers required assistance reading English instructions. Additionally, the site staff installed speed signage in strategic locations within the construction site, including the approach road (where speeding was most prevalent).

Motivation

• Committing before acting: Individuals stick to their intentions and goals by establishing binding commitments to specific actions or behaviours. These devices can involve taking pledges, imposing penalties for non-compliance, or utilising social pressure to encourage desired behaviours. A meta-analysis revealed that commitment leads to short-term and long-term behaviour changes (Lokhorst et al. 2013). For instance, in a large field experiment, hotel guests who committed to practicing environmentally friendly behaviour were 25 per cent more likely to reuse towels (Baca-Motes et al. 2013). Extension programming can also apply commitment strategies to promote sustainable behaviour change (Martin and Warner 2015).

B.J. Fogg’s B-MAP framework suggests that a well-timed trigger is crucial in driving behaviours in specific contexts. He also argues that if motivations are low, triggers may be ineffective. Similarly, frustration can arise when behaviour is triggered by individuals’ lack of the necessary abilities/capabilities (Fogg, 2009). A well-timed trigger can reduce distractions and redirect focus on the task.

During the brief interaction between the target groups in the guards’ chamber, guards presented a voluntary commitment form to HDV drivers. The commitment form aimed to set a speed control goal for drivers. It presented speed control as socially acceptable and recognised as a good practice by site staff. Incoming drivers signed the commitment form after being sensitised to the guidelines. The design of the form incorporated principles of social norm messaging (stating that other drivers adhere to the speed limit of 10 kph on site), picture superiority (highlighting the 10 kph speed sign), and the messenger effect (incorporating the logo of the construction company, and instruction from the security guard).

Designing the pilot

The pilot was conducted along a nearly 100-metre-long road stretch (approach road) with a high silt load. The research was divided into (i) the pre-intervention phase and (ii) the intervention phase. During the pre-intervention phase, in business-as-usual (BAU) operation, the speeds of each passing HDV and their corresponding PM concentrations were measured along the approach road, to ascertain the link between vehicular speeding and the changes in PM.

Similarly, during the intervention phase, we tested the effectiveness of solutions designed using the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) process in reducing vehicular speeding and PM along the approach road. During the construction project, various vehicles were observed, including heavy duty trucks and light motor vehicles such as two-wheelers, three-wheelers, and four-wheelers. Only heavy duty vehicles were included in the study. These vehicles, including ready mix cement (RMC) trucks, soil trucks, water tankers, earthmovers, and tractors, were chosen for their similar body weights and frequent use in various construction operations at the site. The movement of heavy duty vehicles varies depending on the different types of construction activities scheduled for each day. For example, on days when slabbing activities are planned, there is a higher influx of RMC trucks than on other days. Likewise, soil trucks and earthmovers move more frequently during excavation and earthwork days.

The speeds of various HDVs, pollutant levels (PM10 and PM2.5), and meteorological parameters were measured during the monitoring period. The counts of different types of HDVs, primarily RMC trucks, were recorded manually. A total of 91 vehicles were recorded between 10 a.m. and 6 p.m. during the monitoring phase in April and May, with 59 recorded in the preintervention phase and 32 recorded in the intervention phase. The vehicle counts varied depending on the frequency of vehicles needed for particular activities scheduled during that specific time at the site. The vehicle speeds were manually measured by recording the time it took for each HDV to travel the 100m road stretch.

Concentration data for particulate matter (PM) was collected using a portable, battery operated air quality monitor (DustTrak 8533). The monitor was positioned at the road’s midpoint (~50 metres) to assess changes in PM concentrations as each vehicle passed by. PM2.5 data was collected per second. The ambient PM concentration (PM2.5 and PM10) data was measured from the nearest low-cost sensor (LCS) deployed at the site. The selected LCS was devoid of any external influence from any other polluting source during the study period. Meteorological data were obtained from an automated weather station deployed at the pilot site, including temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and wind direction.

Samples were collected on days when the roads were dry and without any rainfall, ensuring uniformity in data collection during the monitoring period. Other dust mitigation measures, such as water sprinkling and anti-smog guns, were also temporarily suspended during these monitoring days. Quality control procedures were implemented to discard any samples that could introduce bias into the results due to external interference or instrumentation errors. Out of the 91 observations, nine were excluded due to instrumental bias. The raw data was analysed by averaging data over five-second intervals and processing it with unit conversion and density correction using an ambient calibration factor of 0.38. Further statistical analysis and significance tests were conducted using the R software package (R Studio). We used Flourish Studio (app.flourish.studio) for data visualisation.

Concentration data for particulate matter (PM) was collected using a portable, battery operated air quality monitor (DustTrak 8533). The monitor was positioned at the road’s midpoint (~50 metres) to assess changes in PM concentrations as each vehicle passed by. PM2.5 data was collected per second. The ambient PM concentration (PM2.5 and PM10) data was measured from the nearest low-cost sensor (LCS) deployed at the site. The selected LCS was devoid of any external influence from any other polluting source during the study period. Meteorological data were obtained from an automated weather station deployed at the pilot site, including temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and wind direction.

Samples were collected on days when the roads were dry and without any rainfall, ensuring uniformity in data collection during the monitoring period. Other dust mitigation measures, such as water sprinkling and anti-smog guns, were also temporarily suspended during these monitoring days. Quality control procedures were implemented to discard any samples that could introduce bias into the results due to external interference or instrumentation errors. Out of the 91 observations, nine were excluded due to instrumental bias. The raw data was analysed by averaging data over five-second intervals and processing it with unit conversion and density correction using an ambient calibration factor of 0.38. Further statistical analysis and significance tests were conducted using the R software package (R Studio). We used Flourish Studio (app.flourish.studio) for data visualisation.

The battery of solutions deployed in this pilot demonstrates that measuring air quality at construction sites can lead to designing and encouraging targeted behavioural actions to reduce it. This offers one of many ways to utilise locally relevant data. Mitigating air pollution requires collective efforts from all stakeholders.

Stakeholders should recognise that a one-size-fits-all approach often fails to account for psychological and contextual barriers, adding to the challenge of implementing compliance mandates, especially in construction sites where working conditions change frequently. Strategic planning of project schedules, including site-specific dust-mitigation plans as priority sub-tasks, can help avoid the adverse impacts of construction bans.

To improve compliance through self-regulation, it’s crucial to make data available by monitoring air quality at active construction sites, ensuring data accessibility, and design processes, motivating workers to adopt easy, evidence-backed dust-mitigating behaviours. Data can also be used to prioritise actions and develop tailored mitigation strategies.

For policymakers

• Mandate a framework for monitoring air quality at construction sites within dust mitigation plans to exchange data with relevant pollution control boards (PCBs) and measure progress. Access to regular, reliable, and understandable air quality data is a stepping stone for boosting mitigation activities. Current policies lack details, such as the number of monitors that should be placed, their locations, and how the data will be used to plan mitigative efforts.

  Dust-mitigation guidelines should include a framework for monitoring air quality using low-cost sensors at C&D sites. This will not only generate valuable local data but also help track progress. The first part of this three-part study outlines a framework highlighting three ways to monitor air quality at construction sites based on local considerations (Patra et al. 2025). The current mandate recommends installing air quality monitors at construction sites over 20,000 square metres. However, as the construction sector rapidly expands, small and medium-sized infrastructure, commercial, and residential projects are common in most urban neighbourhoods. Therefore, it is crucial to monitor air quality at large construction projects and smaller ones (less than 20,000 square metres) close to community settlements to devise locally relevant and implementable dust-mitigation plans.

  While preparing emergency measures like GRAP, regulators should ensure air quality monitoring for construction sites. The PCBs, urban local bodies (ULBs) or planning departments should mandate the drafting of dust-mitigation plans and data sharing before clearing the construction site plan.

• Establish and mandate an explicit speed limit near and within construction sites, to reduce the impact of speeding on dust resuspension. Currently, the guidelines do not mandate an explicit, uniform speed limit in construction zones. Authorities like the CAQM or respective PCBs and ULBs should explicitly mandate a 10 kph speed limit in construction zones and areas to reduce to impact of speeding on dust resuspension. Maintaining lower speeds around construction sites will improve air quality and pedestrian safety, especially on highspeed and pedestrian corridors.
• Encourage voluntary self-regulation programmes and recognise compliant sites. State Pollution Control Boards and ULBs should acknowledge sites committed to mitigating air pollution by adopting clean construction practices. Sites must set voluntary dust-mitigation targets, and share progress with local authorities and industry peers.

  Policymakers should highlight clean construction as a reputational boon with commercial value. A national campaign focussed on dust mitigation, closely tied to reputational benefits, will enable constructors to differentiate themselves in a competitive market by showcasing their commitment to high standards of practice. Membership in such a programme should enable collaboration with leading industry players, small or large, committed to best practices. The programme should develop a culture of knowledge-sharing, keeping dust-mitigation as the focal point.

  For example, the Considerate Constructors Scheme (CCS) and the Considerate Contractor Scheme (City of London) in the United Kingdom are voluntary initiatives to improve the construction industry’s public image through commitments. Introduced in 1997, the scheme encourages construction companies to follow a Code of Considerate Practice, which promotes best practices, including dust mitigation, that exceed legal requirements. The CCS seeks to address concerns about the construction industry’s impact on communities and the environment. While participation is voluntary, many companies join to gain recognition and improve their reputation, which can be leveraged to secure future contracts. Members of the CCS publicly display their commitment to being ‘Considerate Constructors’. Such programmes, linked to reputational perks, enable builders and constructors to showcase their commitment to high standards and involve public participation. Since the scheme’s introduction, more than 200,000 compliance visits have been completed to improve construction standards, and over 200 public complaints are addressed on average each month.

• Explore the scope of Mission LiFE to include additional sectorfocussed emissions reduction behaviours and incentivise behavioural shifts. In November 2021, at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26), the Government of India unveiled Mission LiFE—Lifestyle for Environment—as a global mass movement to encourage behavioural changes toward sustainability. Mission LiFE seeks to promote sustainable behaviours at the individual and community levels. It is a platform for behavioural science research in India, defining over 70 sustainable individual behavioural actions to promote. Pilots can be developed based on the key behaviours identified under the mission to test the effectiveness of creative, affordable, and acceptable behavioural solutions.

  Currently, the first phase of Mission LiFE focusses on behaviour categories such as energy and water usage, waste generation, and adoption of sustainable food systems. However, it is crucial to consider sectoral actions like C&D in the initial phase, as individual behaviours significantly impact emissions within this sector.

  While Mission LiFE primarily focusses on encouraging individual and household-level behaviours, there is merit in expanding the scope to include sectoral interventions that can directly reduce emissions. In the first phase of Mission LiFE, a battery of behaviour interventions can be developed for industries and sectoral stakeholders to adopt. Incorporating incentives for adopting LiFE behaviours has excellent potential for scaling up the adoption of subtle behavioural changes for larger outcomes.

For builders

• Incorporate dust mitigation plans in the construction schedules, ensuring responsible actors implement prescribed actions. Air pollution, particularly at construction sites, is a year-round concern that demands year-round action. Balancing the adverse socio-economic impacts of construction bans requires strategic and proactive planning. These plans involve preparing an implementation plan for various dust-mitigating activities, such as strategic deployment of low-cost sensors, using anti-smog guns, installing green netting, height barriers surrounding the construction site, and timely water sprinkling.

  Integrating a dust-mitigation plan from the outset would allow builders to anticipate potential dust-related challenges and mobilise resources. For example, pollutantintensive activities like excavation can be planned during seasons with favourable meteorological conditions. Regularly taking stock of mitigation efforts and flexible strategies can ensure that dust-control measures remain effective throughout the project lifecycle.

  The immediate environmental surroundings influence how people interact with the available choices in a given context. Builders must prioritise designing site layouts that intuitively minimise unnecessary efforts and increase operational efficiency. A well-planned site can reduce dust generation and improve overall workflow.

• Start small. Large and infrastructural builders must aim to develop a ‘pilot clean construction site’ at one (or more, if capacity allows) of its large proponents (>20,000 sq.m), keeping air pollution mitigation as the larger outcome. The model site will encourage other projects under the same construction company to learn from the best practices adopted by their peers. Builders can prioritise mitigating the most-polluting activities by referring to data, allocating resources, and measuring progress. Beyond fulfilling compliance checklists, actively monitoring site air quality and utilising that data can yield benefits, including opening up ways to use hyperlocal insights for mitigation, moving towards proactive compliance

  Setting up a dedicated air quality monitoring room and appointing staff to coordinate efforts can significantly streamline air quality management at construction sites. Housed in a cost-friendly shipping container, the air quality monitoring room at the pilot site is equipped with WiFi, laptop/PC, an automatic weather station sensor (AWS) dashboard, an air conditioner to provide relief during the harsh summer months, and a TV screen to view the dashboard. A dedicated room and staff streamline dust-mitigation efforts.

• Build capacity and ensure accountability in individuals for upholding air quality standards. A model site should focus not just on infrastructure but also on developing its workforce’s skills. The fragmented nature of the construction sector in terms of human resources demands building awareness and accountability among various groups at construction sites to ensure compliance through the ascription of responsibilities. Further, establishing accountability among individual actors like security supervisors, drivers, and contractors is vital during implementation.

  Ambiguity about who is responsible, and when to act, often leads to inaction, as individuals may be unaware of, or not feel personally accountable for, the overall poor air quality. Building personal responsibility and accountability through improved awareness and seeking short-term commitments is essential in areas where imposing a financial penalty is not feasible. Contractors are regularly in touch with workers and can play a key role in communicating important information. Messages regarding dust mitigation should be communicated by trusting and concerned supervisors or managers. The broad goal of dust mitigation should appear to be achievable by all. Therefore, builders and site managers must explore establishing accountability among concrete individuals rather than abstract organisations.

This study quantifies the impact of a behavioural intervention package on air quality improvement, specifically reducing PM concentration levels from vehicular movement at a construction site. Collaborating with builders and policymakers, further research should be conducted to increase adoption, and quantify the effectiveness of clean construction practices. Reducing pollution from construction activities requires partnerships and coordinated efforts between policymakers, industries, researchers, and workers on the ground.

Strengths and limitations of the study

This study, which leveraged interventions informed by behavioural science to reduce air pollution from C&D activities, presents several notable strengths along with certain acknowledged limitations.

Strengths

• A worker-led approach to air pollution mitigation: Instead of relying on traditional top-down methods such as engineering solutions, fines, and penalties, this study looks into behavioural influences affecting a key pollutant-intensive behaviour: vehicular speeding at C&D sites. Collaborating closely with workers, it highlights behavioural insights that encourage or hinder the adoption and implementation of clean construction practices.
• Quantifying air quality improvement: One of the study’s primary strengths is quantifying air quality improvements resulting from behaviour change among drivers. This data can be instrumental in scaling up similar speed control initiatives in other contexts.
• Scalable solution: The study presents a low-cost, contextually relevant implementation programme design, demonstrating tailored strategies. Construction companies can request pre-commitments from workers to prioritise environmental considerations. When social opportunities arise, encouraging meaningful dialogue and interaction can increase worker engagement and cohesion (Jennings and Bamkole 2019).
• First behaviour change intervention pilot in India at an active construction site: A notable strength of this study is that it represents the first behavioural intervention in India, specifically targeting behaviours at active construction sites, and identifying contextual influences. This study contributes to the literature on behaviour change and air pollution mitigation in India. Construction activities contribute to urban air pollution, highlighting the importance of adopting better practices to mitigate environmental and health impacts. The study fills a gap in the literature regarding air quality interventions in developing countries, particularly in sectors typically overlooked in behavioural change research.

Limitations

• Assumption of constant speed: The formula used to measure vehicle speeds (speed= distance/time) assumes that the vehicle maintains a constant speed over the distance travelled. Vehicles often experience variations in speed due to acceleration, traffic conditions, road types, driver behaviour, etc. This means average speed calculations can lead to inaccuracies, especially if the journey involves acceleration or deceleration phases. While the formula may not provide an exact speed measurement, it can still give an approximation that can be valuable in correlating the relationship between vehicular speeds and their effects on air quality. For example, in a construction site where vehicles are expected to maintain a low-speed limit, a rough speed estimation using this formula can help correlate the effects of speeding on dust resuspension and air quality.
• Influence of environmental factors: Factors such as excessive heat, moisture or cold, wind speeds, road incline, tyre characteristics, and surface conditions can influence vehicle speed. The study results take into consideration meteorological factors. These factors influence road dust resuspension in different ways, and therefore, all the factors could not be accounted for due to constraints.
• Changing construction priorities: Vehicle movement schedules varied substantially across construction phases, with daily fluctuations. Changes in the vehicle schedule delayed the entry of HDVs during the pilot study, resulting in a reduced sample size for the intervention.
• Randomised control trial: The study could not quantify the exact effect of different behaviour change strategies due to the unavailability of a control group. To enhance the reliability and validity of the findings, conducting a randomised controlled trial (RCT) with a distinct control and treatment group can further substantiate the influence of behavioural interventions. The pre-post analysis in the present study provides valuable estimates on the impact of complying with the speed limit of 10 kph, reducing dust resuspension at C&D sites.

Conclusion

While the challenge of dust pollution seems uniform across urban centres, there are many means to mitigate dust, requiring a more targeted and human-centric approach. To identify, influence, and change existing behaviours or processes for positive environmental outcomes, authorities and real estate developers must consider adopting proactive, data-driven, behaviour-focussed strategies.

Different target groups face unique barriers and facilitators in achieving a behavioural goal. This study employs hyperlocal air quality data to target polluting activities, using the COM-B model and the Behaviour Change Wheel process to identify behavioural barriers and design an intervention programme for security guards and HDV drivers to increase speed compliance and reduce dust resuspension. The goal was to reduce particulate matter concentrations from speeding vehicles at an active construction site. The study’s approach focusses on increasing self-regulation and compliance through ‘softer’, affordable, and scalable solutions for dustmitigation practices.

Behavioural interventions have been successfully applied in various sectors, such as increasing bicycle usage (Bishop et al. 2024), promoting waste management (Manika et al. 2022), and encouraging healthier diets (Curtis et al. 2017). As demonstrated in the results of this pilot, adopting a behavioural approach when designing implementation strategies can also ensure effective dust mitigation during C&D activities.

Existing guidelines provide a foundation for designing behavioural interventions. In the C&D context specifically, key behaviours for mitigating dust are well-defined. They distinguish between more- and less-dust-intensive activities, and outline mitigation measures, allowing construction management to prioritise implementation strategies that meet the unique contextual needs of the staff and workers. Construction management can ensure better compliance and self-regulation by building capacity, ascribing responsibilities, holding individual actors accountable for meeting compliance standards, and by making air pollution a salient issue.

Achieving the goal of dust mitigation at C&D sites requires the active participation of various actors, such as workers, foremen, managers, and also C-level executives. The top management can pave the way for project teams to adopt cleaner practices by developing, enforcing, and communicating in-house dust-mitigation guidelines, and recognising model sites for others to emulate.

Ultimately, environmental action translates into behavioural action. Therefore, creating systems and processes that minimise friction and facilitate a smoother transition for individuals toward environmentally sustainable practices is valuable. By reducing barriers to sustainable behaviours, more people can be encouraged to make choices that benefit the environment and society.